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Google Scholar, Prasanna, B. M., Vasal, S. K., Kassahun, B., & Singh, N. N. (2001). Theoretical and Applied Genetics. Maize as food also provides a modest source of daily fat (1.4g representing 1.6% of daily intake; Table 5). How to make cattle feed using maize corn -- RICHI Congo and others, older FAO data and secondary sources were utilized. Nature Climate Change, 10, 5457. They are inexpensive, nutrient-rich, and vary widely . Future research could provide such more detailed spatial, dynamic and socio-political analysis and enhance the transformative power of maize and agri-food systems towards the 2030 Agenda. (Garca-Lara et al., 2019). International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), Carr. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2014.10.009. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2012.02.022, Valbuena, D., Tui, S.H.-K., Erenstein, O., Teufel, N., Duncan, A., Abdoulaye, T., Swain, B., Mekonnen, K., Germaine, I., & Grard, B. The global trade reflects the spatial disparity between where maize is produced and where it is used, including where it is consumed as food (Kinnunen et al., 2020; Fig. It is a versatile multi-purpose crop; although primarily used as feed globally, it continues to be an important food crop in SSA and Latin America, and has several non-food uses globally. Livestock: On our plates or eating at our table? Animal Feeds - Food Safety Lab | Barrow-Agee Laboratories (2018). At the same time maize yield growth variously impinges on each of the three agri-food system outcome categories. Risk Analysis, 33, 21682178. Maize green forage. https://doi.org/10.1080/03066150802151090, De Groote, H., Kimenju, S. C., Munyua, B., Palmas, S., Kassie, M., Bruce, A. Industrial dry-millers produce whole or refined maize flour and an array of maize fractions which are further transformed into breakfast cereals, gruels/porridges, snacks and bakery items (Serna-Saldivar & Perez Carrillo, 2019), as well as nixtamalized and precooked maize flours (Gwirtz & Garcia-Casal, 2014). http://www.rienner.com/title/Maize_Seed_Industries_in_Developing_Countries, Mottaleb, K. A., Kruseman, G., & Erenstein, O. Rural transformation has increased the prospects of such sustainable intensification, albeit significant support is still needed particularly in SSA (Jayne et al., 2019). There is also a contrast between traditional and non-traditional maize growing (and consuming) areas with implications for the role of maize for food security and rural livelihoods and implications for innovation and system dynamics (e.g. http://www.fao.org/faostat, Frelat, R., Lopez-Ridaura, S., Giller, K. E., Herrero, M., Douxchamps, S., Djurfeldt, A. CAS Corn Ethanol Production, Food Exports, and Indirect Land Use Change. The nutrition transition (Popkin, 1999) and economic growth have boosted the consumption of animal-sourced foods, many heavily reliant on maize as feed. Improved maize germplasm from (international) public sources (OPVs and hybrids combined) make up nearly half of the maize area across SSA, providing a substantive return to modest public investments (Krishna et al., 2021). Relative maize:urea prices decreased from 1.1 to 0.7 over the quarter century, falling to their lowest level at the time of the global food crisis (0.5, TE2008). Removal of agricultural supports globally would raise international maize prices and potentially increase the cost for many netimporting countries. NJAS - Wageningen Journal of Life Sciences, 70, 113121. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-019-00981-4, Atlin, G. N., Palacios, N., Babu, R., Das, B., Twumasi-Afriyie, S., Friesen, D. K., De Groote, H., Vivek, B., & Pixley, K. V. (2011). CIMMYT, Mexico, CDMX. This calls for multidisciplinary approaches and the need to include user and policy perspectives. Wheat, maize and rice are the worlds leading staple cereals, each cultivated on some 200 million (M) ha (rounded). Integrated mycotoxin management strategies have been developed, including resistant varieties and biocontrol-based solutions (e.g., Aflasafe- Bandyopadhyay et al., 2016; Kaale et al., 2021). Analysing the farm level economic impact of GM corn in the Philippines. Source: FAOStat (2021). Maize ( Zea mays L) is one of the most versatile emerging crops having wider adaptability under varied agro-climatic conditions. In SSA, GM maize is presently cultivated only in South Africa, both yellow (for feed) and white (for food) purposes, with GM yield gains particularly associated with white maize (Shew et al., 2021). At face value these use categories underestimate the contribution of maize to human food/nutrition. Insect resistant maize (based on Bacillus thuringiensis, Bt) has generated the largest benefits for maize to date (primarily in the USA, followed by Brazil, South Africa, Canada and Argentina), globally on par with the estimated insect resistance benefits for cotton (Brookes & Barfoot, 2020). This has led to increasing calls for sustainable agricultural intensification and associated R&D investments, particularly in Africa (Jayne & Sanchez, 2021; Jayne et al., 2019). In: Awika, J. M., Piironen, V., & Bean, S. Field Crops Research, 132, 175184. The market integration provides cash and intensification incentives and substantial private sector interest. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1312, 6675. 165211. Climate change and disease in plant communities. For some observable traits this can create premium niche marketse.g. Developing maize and beef cattle integrated farming system and its ), The fight against hunger and malnutrition (pp. There have also been some shifts in the top 8 maize producers (the early 1960s set included besides USA and China, USSR, Brazil, Mexico, South Africa, Romania and Yugoslavia, each producing more than 5M t pa at the time, and accounting for three-quarters of global maize production76.4% TE1963). For smallholder farmers with limited production capacity, finding enough feed in the winter months to In the African and Latin American economies where maize is a traditional food crop, maize food consumption is likely to prevail and follow population growth. Global Maize Trade and Food Security: Implications from a Social Network Model. 551591. 8), albeit real urea prices doubled over the last quarter century (from US$116/ton in TE1995 to US$241 in TE2020). Future maize production will be increasingly impaired by environmental drivers such as climate change and land degradation (Grote et al., 2021). Corn is a high starchy cereal crop with the highest production and provides over 85% of the starch produced worldwide. The price developments over the last quarter century however follow half a century of declining real prices for maize (and wheat) since 1950 to 2001 (Wright, 2011). Google Scholar, Jones, P. G., & Thornton, P. K. (2003). (2010). FAO, Rome. Frontiers in Genetics. The nutritional use of millet grain for food and feed: a review Local food crop production can fulfil demand for less than one-third of the population. Maize is set to become the most widely internationally traded cereal reflecting the marked spatial disparity between supply and demand. The equitable transformation of agri-food systems thus calls for an enabling environment for accelerated, affordable and inclusive access and use of improved technologies and the associated strengthening of maize input and output value chains and markets across food and feed uses and support services and policies. In sum, maize is set to become the most widely internationally traded cereal reflecting the marked spatial disparity between supply and demand, linking aggregate surplus production in the Americas and Europe and aggregate deficits in Asia and Africa. BangladeshMottaleb et al., 2018). Maize cultivation spans both emerging economies and the developed world (Fig. . Prediction of migratory routes of the invasive fall armyworm in eastern China using a trajectory analytical approach. Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy, 33, 3258. Mycotoxins in small grains and maize: Old problems, new challenges. (2021). Of the three cereals, maize had a yield increase of nearly 2 tons over the 25-year period (up from 3.9 tons/ha, i.e., an increase of 76kg/ha/yr or a simple average of 2.0% per annum [pa]), compared to increases of 1 ton for rice and wheat (increases of 39 and 40kg/ha/yr, or simple averages of 1.1 and 1.6% pa respectively). https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.12434, Poole, N., Donovan, J., & Erenstein, O. SarTec Corporation - Yucca Based Natural Products - Home Jones, A. D., & Yosef, S. (2015). PubMed http://www.worldbank.org/commodities, Wright, B. D. (2011). John Wiley & Sons, Inc., pp. CIMMYT, Mexico, CDMX. Urbanization, Lifestyle Changes and the Nutrition Transition. The sheer size of the maize economy implies the potential and urgency to explore climate change mitigation and adaptation options, including implications for biotic (pests, diseases) and abiotic (heat, drought) stresses. UN Department for Economic and Social Affairs, New York. The Americas thus contribute half of the global maize production (TE2019), followed by a third in Asia (32%) and the remainder primarily by Europe (11%) and Africa (7.4%Fig. Second, agri-food systems, the role of maize and improvements are context dependent. Quality protein maize. B., Nalley, L. L., Chaminuka, P., & Maali, S. (2021). Of the rest of the produce, 13% is used as livestock feed and food purpose each, 12% for industrial purposes, 14% in starch industry, 7% as processed food and 6% for export and other purposes. The feed use of maize is well-established in the UM/H-ICs. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2015.02.003, Tokarick, S. (2005). http://www.fao.org/cfs/cfs-hlpe/reports/en/, IFAD. Management . At the global level, these indirect consumption pathways outweigh direct food consumption pathways for maize, in addition to providing higher value and more protein rich/nutritious food products than the original grain. A., De Vries, W., Majele Sibanda, L., Murray, C. J. L. (2019). https://doi.org/10.1080/21645698.2020.1816800, Brooks, S. (2014). Overall, maize with its multi-product and multi-market channels has significant development potential (Keleman & Hellin, 2009; Keleman et al., 2013). With economic development (including income growth and urbanization), the consumption of animal source foods is accelerating and propelling the demand of maize as feed, Asia being a prime example (Erenstein, 2010). Maize systems under climate change in sub-Saharan Africa: Potential impacts on production and food security. Many implications are indeed not black and white, but imply fuzzy gradients and trade-offs. On current trends, maize is set to overtake wheat as the most traded cereal. It is an established and important human food crop in a number of countries, especially in SSA, Latin America, and a few countries in Asia, where maize consumed as human food contributes over 20% of food calories (Shiferaw et al., 2011). Various by-products, differentiated by technological process features such as steep liquor, corn germ, corn bran, gluten, are created largely during corn starch processing. https://doi.org/10.1093/wbro/lkr016, Wu, F., & Guclu, H. (2012). https://doi.org/10.1093/erae/jbz048, Keleman, A., & Hellin, J. (2005) with updated climate data. The reported food use only encompasses the direct pathway of consuming dry maize grain in food products (processed or unprocessed).Footnote 4 Much of the maize grain used as feed is used to derive animal-sourced foods and thereby provides an indirect consumption pathway.Footnote 5 For instance, 3kg of human-edible feed (primarily maize grain and soy) potentially produces 1kg of boneless meat (on average requiring 2.8kg in ruminant systems and 3.2kg in monogastric systems -Mottet et al., 2017). Rainfed maize combines the greatest yield potential with the largest yield gaps among Africas cereal crops, with substantive yield gaps across much of Ethiopia, Nigeria and Zambia (Assefa et al., 2020; van Ittersum et al., 2016). Roff offers a range of optional extras that improve capacity and quality and can be added quickly and conveniently as the need arises. Part of Springer Nature. GM Crops & Food, 12, 2535. floor prices, subsidies, import barriers) increase domestic market prices relative to world market prices and can boost domestic production as observed in China (Qian et al., 2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0959-3780(02)00090-0, Kaale, L. D., Kimanya, M. E., Macha, I. J., & Mlalila, N. (2021). Finally, you can procure the raw materials from the local wholesale market. In: Serna-Saldivar, S.O. the milpa system -de Frece & Poole, 2008; Falkowski et al., 2019). Established risk coping mechanisms can hold back change and innovation and thereby the needed agricultural growth and poverty alleviation. 147163. Reference here to maizes (livestock) feed pathway encompasses its use as feed to derive animal-sourced foods and thereby provides an indirect consumption pathway. Maize plays a key and increasing role in global agri-food systems. Small farms (<2ha) predominate (84%) among global farms (Lowder et al., 2021). Maize is variously used in food and feed products, with feed use including the use of maize grain, maize by-products and forage/silage. The livestock feed pathway has been expanding rapidly, but is also increasingly exposed to countervailing powers to limit the consumption of animal-sourced foods and associated search for alternatives (including e.g. As a minimum, it is essential to provide a green fodder supplement to enhance rumen function for bovine animals. Such intensive systems prevail in the Global North and can generate environmental externalities including pollution and land, water and ecosystem degradation. ), An African Green Revolution: Finding Ways to Boost Productivity on Small Farms. Grids representing losses related to processing, packaging, and transport as well as consumer food waste (Gustavsson et al., 2011) were added for the final demand grid. Global Food Security, 25, 100321. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2019.09.006, Grote, U., Fasse, A., Nguyen, T. T., & Erenstein, O. These dietary contributions of maize as food are significantly augmented by the indirect consumption pathway of maize as feed to derive animal-sourced foods for human consumption. Use the Previous and Next buttons to navigate the slides or the slide controller buttons at the end to navigate through each slide. drought and heat tolerance; maturity; biotic stress resistance Prasanna et al., 2021). Such high-level stylized dichotomies illustrate some of the contrasts and implications, but can also again mask some of the underlying heterogeneity. Weather index insurance for managing drought risk in smallholder agriculture: Lessons and policy implications for sub-Saharan Africa. 1) is associated with maize area increases in particularly Ukraine, Argentina, China and Indonesia. https://doi.org/10.1093/toxsci/kft132. The diversity of maize products and uses also have some implications for its commoditization and trade. Specialty Corns. Journal of Crop Improvement, 32, 453476. Journal of New Seeds, 11, 115. (2019). 1). Corn Sweeteners. There are more than 900 safe agricultural ingredients and coproducts approved for use in animal food in the United States, including: Quality assurance is a set of procedures that manufacturers follow to ensure all products are produced to achieve a desired level of quality. ), Corn (Third Edition). The mega-environments have implications for the types of maize grown (e.g. Maize prices have been volatile and increasing in recent decades, aligned with broader concerns in relation to the interconnectedness and vulnerability of the global agri-food system. For the supply side, the SPAM 2010 (IFPRI, 2019), a maize production grid based on spatially allocated sub-national statistics, was utilized together with a calorie value per ton (based on Cassidy et al., 2013) to calculate maize based energy per 1010 km2 pixel. A., & Garcia-Casal, M. N. (2014). Global Food Security, 25, 100327. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2019.100327, Tesfaye, K., Gbegbelegbe, S., Cairns, J. E., Shiferaw, B., Prasanna, B. M., Sonder, K., Boote, K., Makumbi, D., & Robertson, R. (2015). Several Quality Protein Maize (QPM) varieties, with enhanced content of essential amino acids, particularly lysine and tryptophan, have been deployed in SSA, Latin America and Asia (Atlin et al., 2011; Nuss & Tanumihardjo, 2011; Prasanna et al., 2001). Maizes human food pathway plays a geographically diverse role and has long been the focus to improve food security and the nutrition and health of vulnerable populations. India is also experiencing economic transformation, with increased poultry demand, fuelling expanded maize production (Hellin et al., 2015). In absolute numbers, SSA (particularly driven by Burkina Faso, Eswatini, Togo, Lesotho, Mali) and the Americas (particularly driven by Paraguay, Cuba, Uruguay, Peru, Chile) reported increases of some 10kg per capita annual maize food consumption since the 1960s (Fig. https://doi.org/10.1177/0486613407311081, Heuz, V., Tran, G., Edouard, N., & Lebas, F. (2017a). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113, 458463. Development and Structure of the Corn Kernel. This exacerbates soil organic carbon losses and land degradation, expands the agricultural frontier and potentially encroaches onto fragile ecosystems (Pelletier et al., 2020). The global maize area is primarily located in the Americas and Asia, with over a third each, followed by Africa with a fifth and Europe with a tenth (TE2019, Fig. Starch content in grains is approximately 45% in cereals and up to 72% in maize grain. Noteworthy too is China, changing from a net exporter (TE1995, albeit oscillating between net exports [1993, 94] and net imports [1995]) to a large net importer (each year 201719). World population prospects 2019. China is the second largest maize producer but also a net importer, whereby stocks primarily buffer domestic demand and shocks, and are unlikely to be released onto the global market. These could increase global food prices but also incentivize maize area expansion and aggravate negative environmental impacts like further deforestation (Ranum et al., 2014; Wallington et al., 2012; Wu & Guclu, 2013). Since 1961, the global maize area under maize production nearly doubled, up from 106Mha (TE1963) to the current 197Mha (+87%), with an acceleration of area expansion since the early 2000s (Fig. On average, the daily protein intake per capita from maize as food was 3.8g of the daily protein intake (82.5g, and 12% of the proteins provided by cereals, 32.4g). Global Environmental Change, 63, 102127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2020.102127, Pea-Rosas, J. P., Garcia-Casal, M. N., Pachn, H., McLean, M. S., & Arabi, M. (2014). China and India are the two most populous countries, together accounting for more than 36% (2.8 billion) of the global population (UN-DESA, 2019). Food Security and the Dynamics of Wheat and Maize Value Chains in Africa and Asia. Indeed, the 2012 weather extreme in the maize belt of the USA the worlds leading maize exporter contributed to the sharp increase in global maize prices, and escalated food security concerns in the importing nations (Chung et al., 2014). The cattle feed is processed and produced in very easy process with. Maize Seed Industries in Developing Countries. Given its nutritional energy, maize has the most favourable water footprint per kcal of nutritional energy (0.41 L of water/kcal) compared to other crops, although it still accounts for 6% of the global unsustainable blue water footprint (Mekonnen & Gerbens-Leenes, 2020). Grains storage and global food security. The maize area expansion included both an expansion of the agricultural frontier (e.g. In the developed economies it is primarily used as a livestock feed crop with a varied role as an industrial and energy crop. Can sub-Saharan Africa feed itself? Nature Food, 2, 104109. (2021). https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCCSM-01-2014-0005, Tittonell, P., Grard, B., & Erenstein, O. https://doi.org/10.1080/15427528.2011.574224, Hellin, J., & Erenstein, O. Philippines was the first Asian country to approve GM maize cultivation, with Bt yellow maize first commercialized in 2003 and subsequently stacked with herbicide tolerance (Afidchao et al., 2014). At the same time there are dynamics to consider, the nutrition transition being a case in point. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1312, 105112. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1610359113, Wallington, T. J., Anderson, J. E., Mueller, S. A., Kolinski Morris, E., Winkler, S. L., Ginder, J. M., & Nielsen, O. J. A quarter century ago, the top maize net-exporting countries globally included the USA, France, Argentina, China and South Africa, each exporting 145M t/year (TE1995, FAOStat, 2021). Early isotopic evidence for maize as a staple grain in the Americas. Increase in crop losses to insect pests in a warming climate. This clearly indicates that millet can be a substituted for maize. (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31788-4, WorldBank. The twentieth century saw the development and commercialization of the hybrid maize technology, originally in the USA and then spreading across the world to Latin America, Asia, Europe, and Africa (Byerlee, 2020). Over time new virulent pests and diseases have emerged in previously unaffected geographies with far reaching consequences for maize. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00122-021-03773-7, Prasanna, B. M., Huesing, J. E., Eddy, R., & Peschke, V. M. In D. E. Sahn (Ed. Oak Ridge National Lab (ORNL), Oak Ridge, TN (United States). Step 1: Raw Materials Reception & Cleaning Process The first stage is to receive and clean the raw material, such as grains, beans or fish meal, that are used in making pellet feed. Contribution of maize to the food calories in different geographies (estimated M kcal food energy consumed from maize per pixel, ca 1010 km2). Maize production systems focused on the livestock feed pathway tend to be relatively intensive with relatively high input use and yields. Global maize production has surged in the past few decades, propelled by rising demand and a combination of technological advances, yield increases and area expansion. The global population is set to increase by 2 billion from 7.7 billion currently to a projected 9.7 billion by 2050 (8.910.7 billion depending on assumed fertility rates; UN-DESA, 2019). Identifying determinants, pressures and trade-offs of crop residue use in mixed smallholder farms in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. 7). On the other end of the farm size spectrum are large commercial mechanized maize producers, for example, in the USA and Brazil. Raw materials for making your own cattle feed. Food Additives & Contaminants: Part A, 25, 219230. (Eds. AACC International Press, Oxford, pp. Nature Food, 1, 229237. https://basis.ucdavis.edu/publication/bundling-innovative-risk-management-technologies-accelerate-agricultural-growth-and, Bouwman, A. F., & Booij, H. (1998). Remote traditional maize production systems are a case in point and can exhibit resistance to change (de Frece & Poole, 2008). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1759-5436.2011.00232.x, Scott, P., Pratt, R. C., Hoffman, N., & Montgomery, R. (2019). (2005). Over half the global maize (dry grain) production is used as feed for monogastric and ruminant livestock. United Kingdom). Maize varieties are being developed, especially in the high-income countries, with enhanced nutritional value for livestock (Loy & Lundy, 2019) with feed uses becoming more differentiated in terms of poultry and livestock (Paulsen et al., 2019). CAS There is a need for further investments in R&D, particularly to enhance maizes food and livelihood security roles and to sustainably intensify maize production while staying within the planetary boundaries. Google Scholar, Drechsler, D. (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-811971-6.00022-X, Langyintuo, A. S., Mwangi, W., Diallo, A. O., MacRobert, J., Dixon, J., & Bnziger, M. (2010). In: Serna-Saldivar, S.O. Weather and Climate Extremes, 56, 6777. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2013.10.006, Boddupalli, P., Suresh, L. M., Mwatuni, F., Beyene, Y., Makumbi, D., Gowda, M., Olsen, M., Hodson, D., Worku, M., Mezzalama, M., Molnar, T., Dhugga, K. S., Wangai, A., Gichuru, L., Angwenyi, S., Alemayehu, Y., Grnbech-Hansen, J., & Lassen, P. (2020). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1518384112, Fuglie, K., Gautam, M., Goyal, A., & Maloney, W. F. (2020). volume14,pages 12951319 (2022)Cite this article. crop-livestock interactions and use of maize stover as animal feed; Valbuena et al., 2015). On aggregate L/LM-ICs are net importers and UM/H-ICs net exporters (Table 6). PDF Quality protein maize for the feed industry in Kenya Agricultural Systems, 162, 220228. irrigated maize in Egypt; winter season maize in South Asia). https://www.fao.org/economic/the-statistics-division-ess/methodology/methodology-systems/crops-statistics-concepts-definitions-and-classifications/en/, FAO & CIMMYT. Food Security, 3, 307327. Maize thereby plays a diverse and dynamic role in global agri-food systems and food/nutrition security (Grote et al., 2021; Poole et al., 2021; Ranum et al., 2014; Shiferaw et al., 2011). The different maize consumption pathways thereby again have different R&D implications for enhancing such outcomes, with growth as a key driver for poverty reduction. Maizes nutritional quality can be enhanced further through biofortification (Prasanna et al., 2020) and industrial fortification (Pea-Rosas et al., 2014) although this is dependent on the consumption pathway (Gwirtz & Garcia-Casal, 2014). Food Uses of Whole Corn and Dry-Milled Fractions. Maize is a versatile multipurpose crop. Specialty maize is suitable for specific end uses but implies the need to maintain product stewardship during production, supply, and distribution chains (Scott et al., 2019). It is also an important crop for animal feed. Economics of Production, Marketing and Utilization. https://doi.org/10.1080/21645698.2020.1779574, Brookes, G., & Dinh, T. X. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 9, 417436. (2015). Oxford Univeristy Press. International trade allows countries to bridge the spatial disparity between supply and demand, but also bring into play potential distortions and (dis-)incentives. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-019-00901-6, Fanzo, J., Haddad, L., Schneider, K. R., Bn, C., Covic, N. M., Guarin, A., Herforth, A. W., Herrero, M., Sumaila, U. R., Aburto, N. J., Amuyunzu-Nyamongo, M., Barquera, S., Battersby, J., Beal, T., Bizzotto Molina, P., Brusset, E., Cafiero, C., Campeau, C., Caron, P., Rosero Moncayo, J. Maize is cross-pollinated and opened the prospects of hybrid vigor (heterosis), whereby the progeny of crosses between diverse inbred parents is superior to the parents. Since the 1980s, the (international) public sector have increased investments in hybrid maize breeding focusing on the Global South and areas not catered for by the multinational seed industry. Determinants of maize cultivation in a land-scarce rice-based economy: The case of Bangladesh. R&D investments are needed to provide viable risk management mechanisms that enable and crowd-in intensification. Journal of Latin American Geography, 8, 147174. University of California, Davis. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abf5413, Jayne, T. S., Snapp, S., Place, F., & Sitko, N. (2019). (1998). Google Scholar, Afidchao, M. M., Musters, C. J. M., Wossink, A., Balderama, O. F., & De Snoo, G. R. (2014). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-019-0600-z, Gelli, A., Donovan, J., Margolies, A., Aberman, N., Santacroce, M., Chirwa, E., Henson, S., & Hawkes, C. (2020). dent/flint, sweet corn, baby corn, popcorn, waxy maize, high-amylose maize, high-oil maize, quality protein maize; Serna-Saldivar & Perez Carrillo, 2019). In addition, the maize plant is also variously used as feed including in its green form as green forage and for silage (Heuz et al., 2017a, 2017b). Agri-nutrition research: Revisiting the contribution of maize and wheat to human nutrition and health.

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